Literature of the East-West always attract attention because of their diversity of subjects, cultures, religions, rituals and so on. There is always a curiosity to learn more about other societies, their lifestyles, hierarchy and thereafter to draw comparisons. Drawing such a comparison of two societies helps us understand all societies in a better way. It would help us applaud the merits and lessen the demerits.
This paper aims at exploring 2 Classical Literature - Greek and Tamil. Both are ancient cultures and deeply rooted in customs. The concept of fate is the area to be explored in this paper.
Ancient Greek society is the place of origin for great philosophers like; Plato, Aristotle, Diogenes, Plutarch, Parmenides, Epicurus, Porphysy, Plotinus, Eunapius and Euripides. Fifth century B.C. of Greece was an age of progressive rationalism and science. All the literary products of the age show their love of precision and of an ever more precise rationalism. Rationalism permeated the whole social and cultural development. Architecture had developed from primitive cultic considerations to mathematical norms. Medicine had moved from witch doctoring to case books. Political life proceeded from tyranny to rational experiment in democracy and philosophy made its ways from ‘Sayings of the wise” to Aristotelian logic. Literature of the then society reflects religious fervour. Being a great conservative religious dramatist, Sophocles considered human and divine as separate entities.
As James Shiel says,
“To the conservative mind it seemed that reason (logos) had become too much aware of its power, too little of its limitations in practice (ergon).” (p.6)
Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex provides ample room for analysis on this basis. The play stresses not only the role of fate in human life but also the inexplicable nature of the cosmos, to understand which one needs wisdom. Sophocles has employed literary techniques like Peripeteia (reversal of situation) denouement (complication & unravelling) and Anagnorisis (recognition) in order to punctuate the move from ignorance to wisdom.
Oedipus Rex begins with a note that the land of Thebes is afflicted with the plague. Thebans appeal to him for help. The oracle reveals the reason for the plague - regicide. Oedipus, not realizing that he himself is the murderer, sends for the blind prophet Teiresias. Teiresias is reluctant to speak out who rightly points at the accusing finger at the king himself. Circumstances conspire to bring out the irrevocable stages of the tragedy, and realizing his own unintended intended sins, the King blinds himself. His mother-consort commits suicide. Only later does he realize that reason does not stand anywhere before the all pervasive cosmic mystery. Sophocles establishes the immutable role of fate in Oedipus Rex. Though they call the external forces by different names like God, Nous, Fate and Zeus – all are the same.
Robert Graves says, “There are 3 conjoined fates, robed in white, whom Erebus begot on Night : by name Clotho, Lachesis, Atropos.
… Zeus, who weighs the lives of men and informs the fates of his decisions can change his mind and intervene to save whom he pleases, when the thread of life, spun on Clotho’s spindle, and measured by the rod of Lachesis, is about to be snipped by Atropos’s shears.
… Zeus called himself “the Leader of the fates” (Graves, p. 48-49)
The role of fate in Oedipus’ life is immutable. This play is a journey of life in which one moves from ignorance to wisdom. The enlightenment comes at a very high cost. In his ignorance, he says to Creon,
“Who is this man whose fate the God pronounces?” ( Sophocles, p.19).
Not knowing what is to become of him, he pronounces,
“Upon the murderer I invoke this –
whether he is one man and all unknown,
or one of many – may he wear out his life
in misery to miserable doom …
… I pray that I myself may feel my curse” (Sophocles, p.25)
To spell out ignorance, one should have wisdom, and Teiresias emphasizes the idea and importance of wisdom as well the limitations of it. Oedipus proudly says,
“But I came, Oedipus, who knew nothing, and I stopped her.
I solved the riddle by my wit alone”. (Sophocles, p.33)
Teiresias points out the limitations of knowledge when he says,
“Alas, how terrible is wisdom when it brings no profit to the man that’s wise!.” (Sophocles, p.28)
Once again the author stresses the all pervasive power called Zeus and Apollo.
“Truly Zeus and Apollo are wise and in human things all knowing;” (Sophocles, p.38). In his inability to make sense out of the utter confusions around him, Oedipus says,
“What have you designed, O Zeus, to do with me?” (Sophocles, p.51)
Oedipus agrees that the reason, for all his misery, is ignorance :
“O God, I think I have called cures on myself in ignorance.” (Sophocles, p.52)
The role of chorus in ancient Greek Literature is an important one. It is the mouthpiece of the author. It says,
“What evil spirit leaped upon your life to your ill-luck-a leap beyond man’s strength!” (Sophocles, p.81)
Through the words of Oedipus, the author once again warns the community of the enfolding darkness of ignorance
“Darkness !
Horror of darkness enfolding, resistless,
unspeakable visitant sped by an ill wind in haste !
madness and stabbing pain and memory
of evil deeds I have done!” (Sophocles, p.81)
To the question raised by the chorus as to who is to blame for all his woeful sufferings, Oedipus says,
“It was Apollo, friends, Apollo,
that brought this bitter bitterness, my
sorrows to completion.” (Sophocles, p.82)
Though he takes the blame himself, he lays the responsibility for his present situation on Apollo, a force beyond the grasp of all humans. At last, Oedipus submits himself to the will of fate and thereby proclaims to the whole world the inability of human beings in the face of inscrutable fate.
“I would not have been saved from death if not
for some strange evil fate. Well, let my fate go where it will.”(Sophocles, p.86)
Thus, Oedipus subjugates himself to fate and approves of the happenings around him which go beyond the intellect of man. Man is not the MEASURE of all things. There is something which controls the activities of men.
Literature of the East considers the concept of fate differently. It has termed it as destiny. Though the concept of fate has political connotations in Greek culture, East considers FATE to be the follow up of one’s deeds performed in the past. Because, the good and the evil deeds of the past have their continuation in the present. This birth is predestined and no one has control over it. Description of fate is as follows :
“ஊழ்வினை உருத்து வந்து ஊட்டும்”
“Wherever you go, it follows”.
The aftermath of evil deeds have been stressed in great works of art because the effect is much stronger than that of good ones. The reason for one’s suffering in this birth is effected by the deeds of previous birth/s. Second century Tamil culture strongly believed in the concept of fate. The witness of the age have woven their stories with the strong thread of fate in order to create an indelible mark in the hearts of the readers. Ilango, the great poet of the age, whose Silapathikaram is one of a five Great-poems of the Sangam Literature. This poem is really a novel in verse. It is composed towards the end of the last (3rd) Sangam period. The author was Prince Ilango Adigal, a brother of King Shenguttuvan, who ruled over the western coast of South India. Shattan, the great Tamil poet, was with the prince. He provided Prince Ilango with the story line. On Shattan’s request, the saint composed a poem in thirty cantos.
Ilango’s Silapathikaram is another story where fate is the central character whereas all the human characters become subordinates. This paper focuses on Book 2 – “Madurai Kandam” – where the role of fate is more evident than in the other two.
Silapathikaram is a story of a couple by name Kovalan and Kannaki who lived happily in the city called Puhar until, Kovalan lost all the fortune in his love for Madhavi – the dancer. The moment of realization brought him back to his wife. In order to start life anew, they moved to Pandya Kingdom. In order to begin their life anew, Kovalan took his wife’s anklet to sell in the market. The goldsmith mistook the anklet for the queen’s missing anklet and reported the matter to the king. Without any trial, the king ordered his execution as a result of which Kannaki burned Madurai city. The fate of Kovalan destroyed their life beyond redemption. Nature reflects the power of fate in this piece explicitly. On their way to Madurai, Kovalan and Kannaki met Shalini, who was performing the stilt-dance at their arrival. The stilt-dance is the dance of the goddess of death, Durga. After which, they happened to cross a river which was like a stream in blossom. The description goes like this,
“At the sight of them, the water lilies and the pale lotuses in the ponds seemed to shudder on their stems and shed tears as if they foresaw the tragedy awaiting them. The bees hummed a funeral dirge. The banners, reminders of former victories, floating high above the ramparts, waved in the wind like hands warning them not to approach the town”. (Alain Danielou, p. 92)
The author stresses the upperhand of fate in Kovalan’s life in the following sentences where the goldsmith brings the guards before Kovalan.
“He led the guards to Kovalan, whom a merciless fate had thrown into his net”. (Alain Danielou, p.109)
“Defeated by his fate, Kovalan fell” (Alain Danielou, p.111)
when Kannaki hears of her husand’s death, in her grief, acknowledges the indefatigable undeniable role of fate in everyone’s life. She says,
“Will people not say that it was my ill-luck that led a just king to a mistake that was the fruit of his ignorance?”.
…. “Shall people not be led to say that it was my own predestination that compelled the innocent Pandya to such an injustice when the whole world could easily see that he had committed an error?” (Alain Danielou, p.125)
As Kannaki stood before the king, she had admitted that the entry into Pandya region itself was led by fate. She says,
“Led by fate, O King, he entered your city, with ringing
anklets, expecting to earn a living.” (Alain Danielou, p.128) Kannaki proves to the king her husband’s innocence after which the horrors of injustice kill the king. Kannaki then speaks to the dying Pandya Queen,
“Wife of a great monarch! I too am a victim of fate. I have never wished to cause pain.” (Alain Danielou, p. 130)
The reason behind the miserable state of Kovalan is explained by the Goddess of Madurai to Kannaki, as she wanders in wilderness. She tells Kannaki that fate is not particular about one or two. It plays a predominant and vital role in everyone’s life. She says,
“Listen to your husband’s past life,
cause of all the evils that have overwhelmed us.” (Alain Danielou, p. 138)
In his previous birth, Kovalan was Bharathan who was working in the army of King Vasu of Singapura. There were 2 big cities by name Singapura and Kapilapura in the country called Kallinga. Because of the enmity between the 2 cities, no transaction was held at that time.
Once Sangaman, a businessman of Kapilapura along with his wife Neeli, comes to the city in order to establish business. Bharathan mistakes him for a spy, arrests him and persecutes him at the order of the king. Neeli, his wife pronounces a curse on Bharathan that he should share the same fate. Destiny brings this trial and ordeal on Kovalan. Thus, Prince Ilango justifies the reason for Kovalan’s death to be his own fatal mistake.
Just as the Greek culture, Tamil society also believed in “foretelling” or “Predictions”. The Goddess of Madurai tells us,
“Now I shall explain how our king could be led to such injustice. It was predicted long ago that great Madurai would be burned and its king would be made destitute during the month of Adi, the eighth day after the full moon appeared on a Friday, at a time when the Pleiades and Aries should be in the ascendant.” (Alain Danielou, p. 141)
Fate is a force that makes or even changes the course of life for everyone. Fate is not God. He does not mix up god with fate. Tamil society always wanted to please the gods. They have different gods in different names like the God of Creation - Brahma; the God of Protection – Vishnu; the God of Destruction – Shiva; the Goddess of Death – Kali; Goddess of Fortune – Lakshmi and so on. Indian society has innumerable gods. But for every mishap, the human beings bear the responsibility on themselves. The relationship established by man with God is one of respect. But in Greek culture, fate is the word given to the mischief of God and the operative emotion seems to be fear. Because it was the time when conventional religious dogma was being challenged. Thereby, religious conservatives like Sophocles warned that the gods would enact a terrible revenge on any who blasphemed them. According to them, there is no permanence behind the confusion of the sense world. Pericles said, “… The man who can most truly be accounted brave is he who best knows the meaning of what is sweet in life and of what is terrible, and then goes out undeterred to meet what is to come.” (55 p.)
Writers of the East pronounce a solution to the present confusion. The solution is if one does good deeds in this present birth, he/she may avoid further suffering in the forthcoming birth/s. But one has to live with the present pain and suffering because no one is responsible but oneself.
The words of Pericles are echoed in saint Kavundi’s words.
“In this world the sages sound in vain a drum-call of warning when they say : “Avoid the tempting path of sin, for a man shall reap what he has sown”. But those men who are weak do not listen to their advice, and when, the evil deed performed, fate claims its dues, they drown in a sea of despair born of their blindness. The saintly and the wise shed no tears when such men reap the fruits of their deeds.” (Alain Danielou, p. 93)
The ultimate purpose of Literature is to entertain and instruct. But Literature of earlier days took up instruction first and enjoyment later. The “Moral Policing” is done through literature. The goal is attained with the help of fate. Whatever be the name – God, Nous, Nature, Fate – if one conducts life in the proper way, there is no need to fear any external force. When the internal forces are disciplined, the external forces have no upper hand in human being’s life.
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Bibliography
Alain Danielou.trans. Silapathikaram by Prince Ilango.London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1967.
Graves, Robert. Greek myths. 4th ed. London: Ccassell House, 1965.p.48-49
Shiel, James. Greek Thought and the rise of Christianity. London: Longmans, 1968.
Sophocles. The complete Greek Tragedies. Ed. David Grene and Richmond Lattimore, NewYork: Random House Inc, 1942.
Subramanian, S.V., Cilampum Cinthamanium. Madras: Tamil Pathipakam, 1977.
Thirukoodasundaram, P. Silapathikaram. Sornamal Ninaivu Sorpozhivugal, Annamalai Nagar: Annamalai Univ, 1967.